Neurotechnology: What is it and how is it used?

Conlan Broderick; Sarah Bunn

Neurotechnology that interacts with the brain and nervous system can range from established devices, such as cochlear implants, to brain implants with the potential to translate thoughts to physical actions. The UK is competitive in neurotechnology research, with potential economic benefits. However, concerns exist about the safety and ethical implications of the technology as it develops. This article explores neurotechnology, how it works, current and future applications and wider regulatory issues.

What is neurotechnology?

Neurotechnology is an umbrella term for a wide range of technologies that can read information from the nervous system or stimulate it. This can range from established devices, such as cochlear implants, to neural implants with new applications, such as the potential to translate thoughts to physical actions. A subset of neurotechnology is brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), which enable direct communication between the brain and external devices. Some novel approaches involve emerging technologies that are in early-stage human trials, that have the potential to increase independence for people with neurological diseases or injuries, by improving or restoring communication and mobility.

While there is no universally defined list of neurotechnologies, they can be broadly described in three ways:

Non-invasive

Devices that detect brain activity or stimulate the brain outside the body. Examples include neuroimaging using electroencephalogram (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI). These technologies measure brain activity. However, there are limitations to the data they collect since they cannot capture the complexity of all aspects of brain signals.

Semi-invasive

A technology is positioned on superficial surfaces of the nervous system. For example, the neuroimaging technology electrocorticography involves attaching electrodes to the surface of the brain. This gives detailed data about brain activity.

Invasive

Technologies are embedded in the nervous system. Neurostimulation technologies, such as deep brain stimulation implants (DBSs), can be used to treat neurological conditions that cause movement disorders (such as Parkinson’s disease or dystonia), and mood disorders. Electrodes are embedded and stimulate specific parts of the brain. A further application involves invasive electrodes that can read electrical information related to the intention to move, or they can stimulate the brain as if those brain areas were receiving inputs from sensory organs.

The science behind the technology

Neurotechnologies can record, stimulate or change neural activity :

Recording neural activity (reading brain signals): Electrodes detect electrical nerve signals, which are processed and transmitted to external devices like computers. This is used in Brain Computer Interfaces (BCIs) to restore mobility in paralysed individuals, by harnessing intent through thought to control a neurotechnology devices. A current example of this technology is BrainGate.
Stimulating neural activity (sending signals to the brain): Electrical pulses are delivered to neurons to activate or regulate brain function. This method is widely used in treating neurological disorders. It can change abnormal activity, like deep brain stimulation used for Parkinson’s, or convey sensory information to the brain by stimulating brain structures, such as the use of cochlear implants.
Modulating neural activity (changing how the brain works): Some implants can modulate nerve signals. Applications include memory restoration, pain management and psychiatric treatments. For example, Vagus Nerve Stimulators (VNS) can be used to treat epilepsy and depression.

The long-term efficiency of neural implants is influenced by factors like placement, compatibility with human tissues and the immune response, with the brain’s complexity making stable connections difficult to maintain. Risks such as electrical surges or device failure can cause tissue damage, especially in fully invasive systems. Many implants are still bulky and rely on external hardware or large batteries, but advances like biodegradable electrodes, ultra-thin designs and wireless power transfer offer promising improvements. For example, in 2024 neurotechnology company Neuralink introduced a wirelessly chargeable implant, seen as significant progress.

Non-medical applications to enhance human performance

Communication: It is suggested that BCIs have some future potential to decode imagined speech. Neural implants in patients with disabilities have already enabled communication through thought. This technology could offer benefits beyond medical applications, such as a faster and more intuitive alternative to typing or touchscreens.
Gaming and entertainment: Enhancing user experiences by controlling games or virtual environments with their thoughts. For example, neurotechnology startup Neuroba is working on more immersive, personalised and intuitive gaming experiences, which increase cognitive and emotional engagement.
Military and defence: Neurotechnologies are of interest as a result of the potential to improve decision-making speed and accuracy, and to enhance situational awareness for military personnel in high-pressure environments.

The state of UK neurotechnology

The UK is considered competitive in neurotechnology research and is currently ranked fourth worldwide in research and development and in output of neurotechnology publications. UK Research and Innovation (UKRI), a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department of Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT), funds 251 projects and invests £98 million to support initiatives in research institutions across the UK. The neurotechnology landscape map published by UKRI shows an active and diverse range of research centres in the UK. Some institutions, such as the Centre for Neurotechnology at Imperial College London, have specific aims to translate academic research into commercial applications.

Opportunities

Economic growth: The UK has the potential to be a global leader for neurotechnology startups (PDF) and investment. The neurotechnology sector could contribute to creating jobs and attracting tech talent and biotech investment in areas like brain-computer interfaces, neural implants and neural prosthetics.

Research and innovation leadership: The UK is home to leading neuroscience and AI research hubs. UKRI (PDF) and ARIA (Advanced Research + Invention Agency) fund grants across a range of institutions, contributing to innovation.

Medical and healthcare innovations: Patients with medical conditions such as dementia or stroke may benefit from neural implants that bring symptoms under control.

Challenges

Ethics, privacy and autonomy: Neurotechnology devices collect a range of personal data, some of which may be highly sensitive. This raises concerns about data security, consent and potential misuse. Some stakeholders have highlighted potential future risks such as brain manipulation through brain jacking, and obtaining consent for the use of data and experimental technology.

Safety and technical issues: These technologies can lack durability and biocompatibility. This can affect device lifetime, the body’s immune response, and brain adaptability. Due to the complexity of the brain, there are questions about the accuracy of interpretation of brain signals.

Regulation and accessibility: There is a lack of clear regulation and safety standards in the neurotechnology sector. This is viewed as a key concern as the commercial applications for technologies develop. There are also concerns about the cost of these technologies, and their accessibility.

Approaches to regulation

The Regulatory Horizons Council published a Neurotechnology Report in 2022, outlining 14 recommendations for the UK Government on regulating neurotechnology.

The report aims to establish a regulatory framework to promote responsible commercial practices in the development of medical neurotechnologies. It also proposes addressing emerging challenges in this rapidly evolving sector. The previous government in its letter addressed to the Regulatory Horizons Council on 4 April 2024 (PDF) responded to all 14 recommendations. They accepted seven recommendations, and a further seven ‘in principle’. At the time of writing, the current Government has not indicated its view on the report’s recommendations.

Future

As neurotechnology advances, the main challenge is developing effective regulation that both encourages innovation while also taking account of ethical concerns and ensuring safety. This involves addressing challenges while fostering innovation and interdisciplinary collaboration to ensure that challenges are addressed across sectors.

Acknowledgements

POST is grateful to Conlan Broderick, a POST PhD fellow funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, for researching and writing this briefing.

POST would like to thank the following people for kindly giving up their time during the preparation of this article:

Professor Narender Ramnani, Professor of Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London and President, British Neuroscience Association

Natalie Michaux, Nuffield Council on Bioethics